Menu Top


Applied Aspects And Uses Of Compounds

Soaps And Detergents (from Carbon And Its Compounds)

Soaps and detergents are surfactants used for cleaning. They work by reducing the surface tension of water and emulsifying oily dirt.

Soaps:

Detergents:


Uses Of Boron And Aluminium And Their Compounds (from The P-Block Elements)

Uses of Boron:

Uses of Aluminium:


Uses Of Carbon (from The P-Block Elements)

Uses Of Carbon:


Uses Of Dihydrogen (from Hydrogen)

Uses Of Dihydrogen:


Uses Of Hydrogen Peroxide (from Hydrogen)

Uses:


Reverse Osmosis And Water Purification (from Solutions)

Reverse Osmosis And Water Purification:

Osmosis: The movement of solvent molecules from a region of higher solvent concentration to a region of lower solvent concentration through a semipermeable membrane.

Osmotic Pressure ($\pi$): The minimum pressure applied to the solution to prevent osmosis.

Reverse Osmosis (RO): When a pressure greater than the osmotic pressure is applied to the solution side, the solvent molecules are forced from the solution to the pure solvent side through the semipermeable membrane.

Applications in Water Purification:

Mechanism: A semipermeable membrane allows the passage of solvent molecules (like water) but restricts the passage of solute molecules (like salts, ions, larger organic molecules). Applying pressure on the concentrated solution side forces the solvent molecules across the membrane, leaving the impurities behind.


Uses Of Aluminium, Copper, Zinc And Iron (from Metallurgy)


Importance And Applications Of Coordination Compounds

Coordination compounds have a wide range of applications in various fields due to their unique properties:

1. Analytical Chemistry:

2. Industrial Chemistry:

3. Biochemistry and Biological Systems:

4. Extraction of Metals:

5. Medicinal Chemistry:

6. Pigments:


Polyhalogen Compounds (Applied Aspects)

Dichloromethane (Methylene Chloride, $CH_2Cl_2$):

Trichloromethane (Chloroform, $CHCl_3$):

Triiodomethane (Iodoform, $CHI_3$):

Tetrachloromethane (Carbon Tetrachloride, $CCl_4$):

Freons (Chlorofluorocarbons, CFCs):

P,P’-Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT):


Some Commercially Important Alcohols (from Alcohols, Phenols And Ethers)

Methanol ($CH_3OH$):

Ethanol ($C_2H_5OH$):


Uses Of Aldehydes And Ketones (from Aldehydes, Ketones And Carboxylic Acids)


Uses Of Carboxylic Acids (from Aldehydes, Ketones And Carboxylic Acids)


Importance Of Diazonium Salts In Synthesis Of Aromatic Compounds (from Amines)

Diazonium salts ($ArN_2^+ X^-$) are highly versatile intermediates in the synthesis of aromatic compounds. The diazonium group ($-N_2^+$) is an excellent leaving group, making it easy to replace it with a variety of functional groups.

Key Synthetic Transformations:

  1. Sandmeyer Reactions: Replacement of the diazonium group by $-Cl$, $-Br$, or $-CN$ using copper(I) salts ($CuCl$, $CuBr$, $CuCN$).
    • $ArN_2^+ Cl^- \xrightarrow{CuCl} ArCl + N_2$
    • $ArN_2^+ Br^- \xrightarrow{CuBr} ArBr + N_2$
    • $ArN_2^+ Cl^- \xrightarrow{CuCN} ArCN + N_2$
  2. Gattermann Reaction: Similar to Sandmeyer reaction but uses copper powder instead of copper(I) salts.
  3. Replacement by Iodine: Reaction with potassium iodide ($KI$) leads to the formation of aryl iodides.
    • $ArN_2^+ X^- \xrightarrow{KI} ArI + N_2 + KX$
  4. Replacement by Fluorine (Schiemann Reaction): Reaction with tetrafluoroboric acid ($HBF_4$) forms a diazonium tetrafluoroborate salt, which upon heating decomposes to yield aryl fluorides.
    • $ArN_2^+ X^- \xrightarrow{HBF_4} ArN_2^+ BF_4^- \xrightarrow{\Delta} ArF + N_2 + BF_3$
  5. Replacement by Hydroxyl Group: Heating the diazonium salt solution in the presence of water leads to the formation of phenols.
    • $ArN_2^+ X^- \xrightarrow{H_2O, \Delta} ArOH + N_2 + HX$
  6. Replacement by Hydrogen (Deamination): Reaction with hypophosphorous acid ($H_3PO_2$) replaces the diazonium group with hydrogen.
    • $ArN_2^+ X^- \xrightarrow{H_3PO_2} ArH + N_2 + H_3PO_2$
  7. Azo Coupling Reactions: Diazonium salts react with activated aromatic compounds (like phenols and anilines) to form azo compounds, which are highly coloured and used as dyes. This is an electrophilic substitution reaction.
    • Example: Reaction of benzenediazonium chloride with phenol in weakly alkaline medium forms p-hydroxyazobenzene.

Importance: The ability to introduce various functional groups into an aromatic ring at specific positions via diazonium salts makes them indispensable in the synthesis of a wide range of aromatic compounds, including pharmaceuticals, dyes, pesticides, and other fine chemicals.


Polymers Of Commercial Importance (from Polymers)

Polymers are essential materials in modern life, with numerous commercial applications. Here are some important ones: